Nomads as Learners: on the move and out of range?

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Introduction

The twenty-first century presents a continually and rapidly changing environment in which lifelong learning appears to be a commonly understood requirement for those wishing to actively participate in today’s ‘mainstream’ world. It is characterised by globalisation, the rapid pace at which new or improved technology emerges, an information explosion, divides polarised around technological/digital, social, economic, cultural and political axes, an increasingly nomadic population and an increasing need for, and expectation of, networked ‘connectivity’ and digital literacy.

The diffusion of mobile devices and wireless networks, along with the emergence of web-based applications and services, has enabled greater access to global connections and collaborative endeavours for those who lead a nomadic life. Groups outside the mainstream of society are at risk of being marginalised and excluded from formal education, and disadvantaged in a ‘climate’ where human and social capital constitute a person’s value in a globalised knowledge economy. Richard Katz (2005, P74) cites Gershenfeld (1999) who states that “Under any conditions, the network can and will amplify educational divides. Those who have neither literacy, numeracy, nor information literacy will be increasingly estranged from social institutions, cultural institutions, and government”. However, society, by neglecting such groups, also loses the valuable resource diversity represents for a more current and comprehensive knowledge-base, for collaborative problem-solving and a more cohesive global community. Katz also cautions that there may be social movements with people wishing to go ‘off the grid’. Nomads may well be among those who value not only freedom of movement, but also freedom from central surveillance and controls.

Nomadic lifestyles, be they in the traditional sense or in contemporary and ‘cyber’ senses, present significant issues in relation to ubiquitous networked computing in a read-write web environment, with implications to consider for all stakeholders, particularly the education and training sectors. A mobile learning (m-learning) approach can leverage the affordances of portable devices and nomadic computing to engage those who may now be perceived as non-traditional learners, (such as those on the move and millennial learners), and who may constitute the majority in the future. Just as Wilson (cited in Wagner, 2005, P52) describes mobile wireless devices as “tools of mass disruption”, so too might nomads become ‘learners of mass disruption’ for teaching, learning and research.

Will Richardson (2006, Paras: 9-10) offers an insight into the new nomadic, lifelong learner:

"In this new interactive Web world, I have become a nomadic learner; I graze on knowledge. I find what I need when I need it. There is no linear curriculum to my learning, no formal structure other than the tools I use to connect to the people and sources that point me to what I need to know and learn…then give back what I have discovered... anyone can become a lifelong learner... These technologies are user friendly in a way that technologies have not been in the past... It's not difficult at all to be an active contributor in this society of authorship we are building ".

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Knowing Nomads

The following 'definitions' present understandings about nomads, nomadic learning and nomadicity from a range of sources.

Nomads are “groups who move from place to place, without a year-round permanent residence” such as Bedouins (1998, http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O88-nomads.html ). The three categories of nomadic groups are hunter/ food gatherers, itinerant fishermen, and pastoralists or herdsmen (Aderinoye et al, 2007, citing Akinpelu, 1993). Gypsies and others travelling to markets or seasonal harvesting work could be included as semi-nomadic or peripatetic in that they travel between and work between multiple establishments, much as many modern global and corporate nomads do.

Nomadic learning is learning that occurs at anytime and from anywhere using technology such as mobile devices. The learner must be able to access learning materials using their existing technology and infrastructure while on the move (Mohamed Ally, 2008) Response to a WG3 questionnaire on nomadicity and mobility.

It has been suggested that nomadicity refers to the infrastructure or “system support needed to provide a rich set of capabilities and services to the nomad… as this person “moves from place to place in a transparent and convenient form” (Kleinrock, 1995). Approaches to nomadicity in learning, education and training vary around the globe, however, nomadic lifestyles are increasingly expected of people along with changing locations, time zones and surrounding technological infrastructure.
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Who are they?

The following examples will convey the diversity, and unique contexts, one might encounter when considering learners on-the-move. These have been loosely grouped according to work, study or recreational focus in the following table and include traditional nomads and semi-nomads.

Work	Study	Recreation
Corporate nomads	Distance Education	RV(Recreational Vehicle)
Field researchers	Home Schooled	Liveaboards (boats)
Aid agency workers	Work placement	Backpackers
Professional speakers	Apprentices	Flashpackers (travellers using high-end accommodation)
Cybernomads	Children of nomads	Grey nomads (retirees)
Digital nomads
Aviation staff
Maritime staff
Teachers
Performers
Writers
Marketeers
Seasonal harvesters
Fisherfolk
Herders
Hunter/gatherers
Gypsies

There are likely to be significant differences in the contexts and unique learning needs and styles of modern (cyber/technomads) and those of traditional nomads, but common issues and implications remain.

Traditional nomads appear particularly 'at risk' of being out of range and unable to connect to the internet/mobile networks seemingly so essential for participation in today's globalised society. They are too easily excluded from the emerging learning loop and hover on the fringe of contemporary social practices and networks.

Where and how are they learning?

The personal perspective shared above, by Wendy Paton, also serves to illustrate some aspects of how nomads may be learning. It brings up ideas about changing notions of ‘learning spaces’, including the ‘third place’ outside home and work (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Third_Place), as well as the place of nomadic and mobile learning in relation to formal, non-formal and informal learning. Other perspectives might be in terms of flexible, blended, continuous, discontinuous, online and offline approaches.

Just as definitions and theorizing abounds around nomadic education and mobile learning, so too contestation exists around 'modes' of learning. Colley, Hodkinson and Malcolm (2002) present a conceptual mapping of this, including contemporary definitions from Eraut, Livingstone, Billet, Hunt and others. "Boundaries or relationships between informal, non-formal and formal learning can only be understood within particular contexts... it is often more helpful to examine dimensions of formality and informality, and ways in which they inter-relate with each other; and that attention should be paid to the wider historical, social, political and economic contexts of learning" (Colley et al, 2002, Para:1). However, one view from the European Commission is summarised here:

Formal learning: learning typically provided by an education or training institution, structured (in terms of learning objectives, learning time or learning support) and leading to certification. Formal learning is intentional from the learner’s perspective.

Non-formal learning: learning that is not provided by an education or training institution and typically does not lead to certification. It is, however, structured (in terms of learning objectives, learning time or learning support). Non-formal learning is intentional from the learner’s perspective.

Informal learning: learning resulting from daily life activities related to work, family or leisure. It is not structured (in terms of learning objectives, learning time or learning support) and typically does not lead to certification. Informal learning may be intentional but in most cases it is non-intentional (or “incidental”/ random) (ibid, P32-33).

Stephen Downes believes "What makes informal learning different from formal learning is not that it is formless, but rather, it that it is conducted outside the domain of the formal education infrastructure, with the associated and not trivial implication that it is managed by the learner, and not the professor or institution" (Downes, 2006, Para:11).

Speaking pedagogically...

Mobile learning is emerging as a natural pedagogical response to the needs of nomadic learners. Jan and Anthony Herrington (2007) in exploring authentic mobile learning in higher education acknowledge that "In general, mobile learning—or m-learning—can be viewed as any form of learning that happens when mediated through a mobile device (citing Winters, 2006) and a form of learning that has established the legitimacy of ‘nomadic’ learners" citing Alexander, 2004).



A nomadic learning system should have the following capabilities:
• affordable for learners
• support different learning styles
• provide access to learning materials when and how learners require
• provide anytime access to learning materials
• allow transparency in access to learning materials
• provide an infrastructure that supports the use of different technologies (in a seamless manner) by learners who move from location to different location
• enable learners to use their existing mobile technology to access learning materials
• provide online help for learners using mobile technology and other technologies to access learning resources
• allow learners to use technology to collaborate with other learners
• protect the privacy of learners
• provide security and protection of personal information
• foster a sense of community

Materials developed for mobile learning should be "based on learning theories appropriate to the context, level and content specific to the learning situation", preferably in appropriately sequenced chunks to allow for flexibility in delivery and addressing the needs of the learner. The technologies "need to interoperate with other technologies to enable the seamless provision of learning resources to the learner... devices must have multimedia capabilities to meet the needs of those with different learning styles and accessibility requirements". They must also "be multipurpose so that students can use one device to learn, collaborate, and access a variety of information" WC3 questionnaire.

Issues

Significant issues arise in looking to mobile devices to reach and engage nomadic learners in a globalised society hinged on connectivity. Access and equity remain in the forefront, requiring technology solutions on hardware, software and network access and interoperability, as well as economic, social and pedagogical aspects, evident in the following points (with 1 – 3 contributed by Stacey Werder).

1. While mobile phones and PDAs have the ability to deliver learning objects and provide access to online systems and services, the network infrastructure has not been able to keep up with users’ expectations, industry hype, or handset development. Consequently, bandwidth is currently not good enough for substantial online learning. In addition, coverage and signal problems are still barriers in many areas and when travelling (Attewell, 2005, P16).

2. Even though materials delivered in a browser can be helpful, it does not offer full platform independence and standards issues still exist (Attewell, 2005, P16).

3. Efficient support is needed to enable mobile learning devices to be used successfully as a learning tool (Attewell, 2005, P17).

4. Ownership of devices in both empowering and critical for successful personalized learning experiences and autonomy, particularly for recognizing the context and history of individual learners (Traxler, 2007, P7) and learner authorship in meaningful, relevant locations (Cobcroft et al, 2006, P3).

Implications

1. A mixture of online learning and learning using materials downloaded onto handheld devices for use offline is essential (Attewell, 2005, p16).

2. Use software layers to insulate learning materials from device-specific features (Attewell, 2005, p16).

3. Support networks need to be set up for, both, learners and mentors/ facilitators. Training needs to be provided for learners to ensure that they are able to effectively use their PDAs and other more complex mobile devices. Organisations also need to make time for training mentors/ facilitators as their skills and levels of confidence vary. Ongoing access to advice and proactive support are helpful to facilitators/ mentors. Further, prompt responses to learner and mentor/facilitator problems are required to prevent disillusionment and the stalling of momentum. Proactive support may involve contacting mentors to find out if they need assistance, which can result in solving issues before they turn into more complex issues (Attewell, 2005, p17).
Contributed by Stacey Werder

4. Educational institutions can be advocates for government and/or corporate sponsorship to increase ownership of mobile devices for learning and reduce network access costs. An example might be telecommunications companies allowing free connection to educational sites. They might also lobby for interoperability and support purchase of devices that best satisfy any such identified needs, or contribute to Grid computing.

Options

Enabling technologies

Mobile technologies are evolving rapidly, encompassing mobile phones (particularly multimedia and web enabled), increased portable memory options, PDAs, portable media devices (such as iPods) and smartphones that converge these capabilities, epitomised in some ways by the Apple iPhone3G (a mobile phone, a touch controlled wide-screen iPod, and an Internet communications device in one). Although literature and conferences exploring the affordances of mobile devices and increasing ‘anytime, anywhere’ connectivity are relatively recent, there appears to be agreement on the growing ubiquity of mobile phone ownership, and on the opportunity this presents for engaging learners.

“These mobile handsets will create the first ‘always on’ generation of technologically enabled citizens who will spend the majority of their time in close proximity to Web access and e-applications. The purpose of next generation learning systems is to harness current and new technologies to provide new methods of learning and training that are available to all who wish to be part of the ‘always on’ generation… it will be crucial to achieve the merging of e-learning and m-learning providing pioneering approaches that will support new learning models based on ubiquitous, collaborative, experiential and contextualised learning (Laria, 2002, P3).

Portable computing devices, (such as laptops and tablet PCs), although not included in some definitions of mobile devices as they are not constantly carried, are an integral part of many modern nomadic learners’ device ecologies. This may consist of a USB wireless modem, (or personal satellite modem in some cases), a computing device, software, USB portable storage drive, ethernet cable, and perhaps a portable printer. Web-services/e-applications, in which software does not need to be installed on the device used, are on the rise with implications for bandwidth usage.

Content, formats, approaches and timing are best tailored to the individual learner’s device and connectivity context and preferences. These range from basic, cost effective mobile phone capabilities (SMS and voice calls) to Flash objects, web-enabled, multimedia capture and posting to blogs and forums, to web-conferencing. Additionally, appropriate blends of online and offline activity with flexible timelines could be designed. Portable audio devices also offer options for radio, an established and more universal medium in distance education, as well as downloadable podcasts.

The last mile in universal access

Close to half the world’s population now own mobile phones, this pervasiveness due to affordability, enhanced device feature sets and improving coverage of cellular networks. Metcalfe’s Law, (where, in this case, the greater the number of users, the higher the value in terms of connectivity), is certainly demonstrated here. However, there remain vast rural and remote areas not yet serviced, with satellite and a mobile Grid infrastructure appearing to be the main options in bridging the digital divide’s ‘last mile’, the hardest to achieve for universal access requirements (Laria, 2002).

Laria believes “Mobile technology will add ubiquitous and pervasiveness to the Grid potential”, not just to access it, but as part of the Grid, evolving “towards a nomadic system” (P4). Such widespread availability “can be harnessed and exploited to provide access to training opportunities for those who otherwise might be at a disadvantage for geographic (wireless networks span the rural-urban divide), economic (mobile handsets are relatively inexpensive) or social reasons, but mainly to take an innovative contextualised learning approach, where the learner “achieves” knowledge and skills in an active way instead of simply storing information” and preparing for the “next generation of learning and training” (ibid, P4).

Initial findings from a poll indicate strong agreement with the claim that the capacity to regularly connect to the internet/mobile networks is essential for participation in today’s globalised society.

Conclusion

Life-long learning and mobile technologies appear to be moving towards a ubiquitous state… but not for all. Nomadic and/or isolated learners may be under-represented in current conversations on technology-enabled nomadicity, but remain a part of lively debates and global investigations into issues and implications arising for emerging futures in education and training. Access, feasible learning designs and theoretical underpinnings, the users themselves, sustainability and equitable education for all are just some of the less-charted waters to be explored (White, 2008).

Mobile communication and computing devices, the availability and capacity of infrastructure and individuals to access the internet, the emerging learner-centredness of pedagogy and the demands of a globalised economy for lifelong learning are critical issues for nomadic learners. It’s not just the digital native – digital immigrant (Prensky, 2001) generational differences to consider in mobile/nomadic learning, but also the needs of the diverse sub-cultures revealed in attempts to identify these learners.

Educators are urged to recognise and design to realise the potential for more than just transmission of information (Prensky, 2001; Richardson, 2006). Communication and social networking, user-generation and sharing of digital artefacts, collaborative projects and complex problem-solving offer rich media choices and channels for engaging, personalized, authentic, situated, networked/connected learning environments and experiences. Connectivity is central to the affordances of the ‘read-write web’ and beyond for ‘pedagogy 2.0’, ‘learning 2.0’, and the digital literacy it demands.

Related knowledgeGarden pages

• Classrooms vs Learning Spaces The Changing Face of Education Facilitated by Wendy Paton
• mLearning Originally facilitated by Colin Hill - up for adoption
• iPods, Education and You Facilitated by Stacey Werder
• Mobile Phones and Education Facilitated by Therese Sippel (2007)
• Integration of mobile device to support learning Facilitated by Shaguftah Alladeen

Related web sites

• Paul Saffo's journal Cybernomads: a functional taxonomy of nomads
• The Economist Nomads at last (April, 2008) An interview with Andreas Kluth
• Jay Cross Informal Learning Blog
• mLearning Trends Analysis http://www.alphavisions.com/mLearning/index.html
• The Akogrimo project http://www.mobilegrids.org
• Digital nomads http://www.digitalnomads.com/

References

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